Comparative Advantage Concept and Benefits of Outcome Essay Example

Comparative Advantage: Concept and Benefits of Outcome Essay From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search In economics, the law of comparative advantage refers to the ability of a party (an individual, a firm, or a country) to produce a particular good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another party. It is the ability to produce a product with the highest relative efficiency given all the other products that could be produced. 1][2] It can be contrasted with absolute advantage which refers to the ability of a party to produce a particular good at a lower absolute cost than another. Comparative advantage explains how trade can create value for both parties even when one can produce all goods with fewer resources than the other. The net benefits of such an outcome are called gains from trade. It is the main concept of the pure theory of international trade. Contents | |[hide] | |1 Origins of the theory | |2 Examples | |2. 1 Example 1 | |2. Example 2 | |2. 3 Example 3 | |3 Effect of trade costs | |4 Effects on the e conomy | |5 Considerations | |5. 1 Development economics | |5. Free mobility of capital in a globalized world | |6 See also | |7 Notes | |8 References | |9 External links | [pic][edit] Origins of the theory Comparative advantage was first described by Robert Torrens in 1815 in an essay on the Corn Laws. He concluded it was to Englands advantage to trade with Portugal in return for grain, even though it might be possible to produce that grain more cheaply in England than Portugal. However, the concept is usually attributed to David Ricardo who explained it in his 1817 book On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation in an example involving England and Portugal. [3] In Portugal it is possible to produce both wine and cloth with less labor than it would take to produce the same quantities in England. However the relative costs of producing those two goods are different in the two countries. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Advantage: Concept and Benefits of Outcome specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Advantage: Concept and Benefits of Outcome specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Comparative Advantage: Concept and Benefits of Outcome specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In England it is very hard to produce wine, and only moderately difficult to produce cloth. In Portugal both are easy to produce. Therefore while it is cheaper to produce cloth in Portugal than England, it is cheaper still for Portugal to produce excess wine, and trade that for English cloth. Conversely England benefits from this trade because its cost for producing cloth has not changed but it can now get wine at a lower price, closer to the cost of cloth. The conclusion drawn is that each country can gain by specializing in the good where it has comparative advantage, and trading that good for the other. edit] Examples The following hypothetical examples explain the reasoning behind the theory. In Example 2 all assumptions are italicized for easy reference, and some are explained at the end of the example. [edit] Example 1 Two men live alone on an isolated island. To survive they must undertake a few basic economic activities like water carrying, fishing, cooking and shelter constr uction and maintenance. The first man is young, strong, and educated. He is also faster, better, and more productive at everything. He has an absolute advantage in all activities. The second man is old, weak, and uneducated. He has an absolute disadvantage in all economic activities. In some activities the difference between the two is great; in others it is small. Despite the fact that the younger man has absolute advantage in all activities, it is not in the interest of either of them to work in isolation since they both can benefit from specialization and exchange. If the two men divide the work according to comparative advantage then the young man will specialize in tasks at which he is most productive, while the older man will concentrate on tasks where his productivity is only a little less than that of the young man. Such an arrangement will increase total production for a given amount of labor supplied by both men and it will benefit both of them. [edit] Example 2 Suppose there are two countries of equal size, Northland and Southland, that both produce and consume two goods, food and clothes. The productive capacities and efficiencies of the countries are such that if both countries devoted all their resources to food production, output would be as follows: †¢ Northland: 100 tonnes †¢ Southland: 400 tonnes If all the resources of the countries were allocated to the production of clothes, output would be: †¢ Northland: 100 tonnes Southland: 200 tonnes Assuming each has constant opportunity costs of production between the two products and both economies have full employment at all times. All factors of production are mobile within the countries between clothes and food industries, but are immobile between the countries. The price mechanism must be working to provide perfect competit ion. Southland has an absolute advantage over Northland in the production of food and clothes. There seems to be no mutual benefit in trade between the economies, as Southland is more efficient at producing both products. The opportunity costs shows otherwise. Northlands opportunity cost of producing one tonne of food is one tonne of clothes and vice versa. Southlands opportunity cost of one tonne of food is 0. 5 tonne of clothes, and its opportunity cost of one tonne of clothes is 2 tonnes of food. Southland has a comparative advantage in food production, because of its lower opportunity cost of production with respect to Northland, while Northland has a comparative advantage in clothes production, because of its lower opportunity cost of production with respect to Southland. To show these different opportunity costs lead to mutual benefit if the countries specialize production and trade, consider the countries produce and consume only domestically. The volumes are: |Production and consumption before trade | |Country |Food |Clothes | |Northland |50 |50 | |Southland |200 |100 | |TOTAL |250 |150 | This example includes no formulation of the preferences of consumers in the two economies which would allow the determination of the international exchange rate of clothes and food. Given the production capabilities of each country, in order for trade to be worthwhile Northland requires a price of at least one tonne of food in exchange for one tonne of clothes; and Southland requires at least one tonne of clothes for two tonnes of food. The exchange price will be somewhere between the two. The remainder of the example works with an international trading price of one tonne of food for 2/3 tonne of clothes. If both specialize in the goods in which they have comparative advantage, their outputs will be: |Production after trade | |Country |Food |Clothes | |Northland |0 |100 | |Southland |300 |50 | |TOTAL |300 |150 | World production of food increased. clothes production remained the same. Using the exchange rate of one tonne of food for 2/3 tonne of clothes, Northland and Southland are able to trade to yield the following level of consumption: |Consumption after trade | |Country |Food |Clothes | Northland |75 |50 | |Southland |225 |100 | |World total |300 |150 | Northland traded 50 tonnes of clothes for 75 tonnes of food. Both benefited, and now consume at points outside their production possibility frontiers. Assumptions in Example 2: †¢ Two countries, two goods the theory is no different for larger numbers of countries and goods, but the principles are clearer and the argument easier to follow in this simpler case. †¢ Equal size economies again, this is a simplification to p roduce a clearer example. Full employment if one or other of the economies has less than full employment of factors of production, then this excess capacity must usually be used up before the comparative advantage reasoning can be applied. †¢ Constant opportunity costs a more realistic treatment of opportunity costs the reasoning is broadly the same, but specialization of production can only be taken to the point at which the opportunity costs in the two countries become equal. This does not invalidate the principles of comparative advantage, but it does limit the magnitude of the benefit. Perfect mobility of factors of production within countries this is necessary to allow production to be switched without cost. In real economies this cost will be incurred: capital will be tied up in plant (sewing machines are not sowing machines) and labour will need to be retrained and relocated. This is why it is sometimes argued that nascent industries should be protected from fully lib eralised international trade during the period in which a high cost of entry into the market (capital equipment, training) is being paid for. Immobility of factors of production between countries why are there different rates of productivity? The modern version of comparative advantage (developed in the early twentieth century by the Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin) attributes these differences to differences in nations factor endowments. A nation will have comparative advantage in producing the good that uses intensively the factor it produces abundantly. For example: suppose the US has a relative abundance of capital and India has a relative abundance of labor. Suppose further that cars are capital intensive to produce, while cloth is labor intensive. Then the US will have a comparative advantage in making cars, and India will have a comparative advantage in making cloth. If there is international factor mobility this can change nations relative factor abundance. The principle of comparative advantage still applies, but who has the advantage in what can change. †¢ Negligible transport cost Cost is not a cause of concern when countries decided to trade. It is ignored and not factored in. Before specialization, half of each countrys available resources are used to produce each good. †¢ Perfect competition this is a standard assumption that allows perfectly efficient allocation of productive resources in an idealized free market. [edit] Example 3 The economist Paul Samuelson provided another well known example in his Economics. Suppose that in a particular city the best lawyer happens also to be the best secretary, that is he would be the most productive lawyer and he would also be the best secretary in town. However, if this lawyer focused on the task of being a lawyer and, instead of pursuing both occupations at once, employed a secretary, both the output of the lawyer and the secretary would increase, as it is more difficult to be a lawyer than a secretary. [citation needed] [edit] Effect of trade costs Trade costs, particularly transportation, reduce and may eliminate the benefits from trade, including comparative advantage. Paul Krugman gives the following example. [4] Using Ricardos classic example: |Unit labor costs | |Cloth |Wine | |Britain |100 |110 | |Portugal |90 |80 | In the absence of transportation costs, it is efficient for Britain to produce cloth, and Portugal to produce wine, as, assuming that these trade at equal price (1 unit of cloth for 1 unit of wine) Britain can then obtain wine at a cost of 100 labor units by producing cloth and trading, rather than 110 units by producing the wine itself, and Portugal can obtain cloth at a cost of 80 units by trade rather than 90 by production. However, in the presence of trade costs of 15 units of labor to import a good (alternatively a mix of export labor costs and import labor costs, such as 5 units to export and 10 units to import), it then costs Britain 115 units of labor to obtain wine by trade – 100 units for producing the cloth, 15 units for importing the wine, which is more expensive than producing the wine locally, and likewise for Portugal. Thus, if trade costs exceed the production advantage, it is not advantageous to trade. Krugman proceeds to argue more speculatively that changes in the cost of trade (particularly transportation) relative to the cost of production may be a factor in changes in global patterns of trade: if trade costs decrease, such as on the advent of steam-powered shipping, trade should be expected to increase, as more comparative advantages in production can be realized. Conversely, if trade costs increase, or if production costs decrease faster than trade costs (such as via electrification of factories), then trade should be expected to decrease, as trade costs become a more significant barrier. edit] Effects on the economy Conditions that maximize comparative advantage do not automatically resolve trade deficits. In fact, many real world examples where comparative advantage is attainable may require a trade deficit. For example, the amount of goods produced can be maximized, yet it may involve a net transfer of wealth from one country to the other, often because economic agents hav e widely different rates of saving. As the markets change over time, the ratio of goods produced by one country versus another variously changes while maintaining the benefits of comparative advantage. This can cause national currencies to accumulate into bank deposits in foreign countries where a separate currency is used. Macroeconomic monetary policy is often adapted to address the depletion of a nations currency from domestic hands by the issuance of more money, leading to a wide range of historical successes and failures. [edit] Considerations [edit] Development economics The theory of comparative advantage, and the corollary that nations should specialize, is criticized on pragmatic grounds within the import substitution industrialization theory of development economics, on empirical grounds by the Singer–Prebisch thesis which states that terms of trade between primary producers and manufactured goods deteriorate over time, and on theoretical grounds of infant industry and Keynesian economics. In older economic terms, comparative advantage has been opposed by mercantilism and economic nationalism. These argue instead that while a country may initially be comparatively disadvantaged in a given industry (such as Japanese cars in the 1950s), countries should shelter and invest in industries until they become globally competitive. Further, they argue that comparative advantage, as stated, is a static theory – it does not account for the possibility of advantage changing through investment or economic development, and thus does not provide guidance for long-term economic development. edit] Free mobility of capital in a globalized world Ricardo explicitly bases his argument on an assumed immobility of capital: if capital freely flowed towards those countries where it could be most profitably employed, there could be no difference in the rate of profit, and no other difference in the real or labour price of commodities, than the additional quantity of labour required to convey them to the various markets where they were to be sold. [5] He explains why, from his point of view , (anno 1817) this is a reasonable assumption: Experience, however, shows, that the fancied or real insecurity of capital, when not under the immediate control of its owner, together with the natural disinclination which every man has to quit the country of his birth and connexions, and entrust himself with all his habits fixed, to a strange government and new laws, checks the emigration of capital. [5] Some scholars, notably Herman Daly, an American ecological economist and rofessor at the School of Public Policy of the University of Maryland, have voiced concern over the applicability of Ricardos theory of comparative advantage in light of a perceived increase in the mobility of capital: International trade (governed by comparative advantage) becomes, with the introduction of free capital mobility, interregional trade (governed by Absolute advantage). [6] Adam Smith developed the principle of absolute advantage. The economist Paul Craig Roberts notes that the comparative advantage principles developed by David Ricardo do not hold where the factors of production are internationally mobile. [7][8] Limitations to the theory may exist if there is a single kind of utility. Yet the human need for food and shelter already indicates that multiple utilities are present in human desire. The moment the model expands from one good to multiple goods, the absolute may turn to a comparative advantage. The opportunity cost of a forgone tax base may outweigh perceived gains, especially where the presence of artificial currency pegs and manipulations distort trade. [9] Global labor arbitrage, where one country exploits the cheap labor of another, would be a case of absolute advantage that is not mutually beneficial. [10][11][12] Economist Ha-Joon Chang criticized the comparative advantage principle, contending that it may have helped developed countries maintain relatively advanced technology and industry compared to developing countries. In his book Kicking Away the Ladder, Chang argued that all major developed countries, including the United States and United Kingdom, used interventionist, protectionist economic policies in order to get rich and then tried to forbid other countries from doing the same. For example, according to the comparative advantage principle, developing countries with a comparative advantage in agriculture should continue to specialize in agriculture and import high-technology widgits from developed countries with a comparative advantage in high technology. In the long run, developing countries would lag behind developed countries, and polarization of wealth would set in. Chang asserts that premature free trade has been one of the fundamental obstacles to the alleviation of poverty in the developing world. Recently, Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan and China have utilized protectionist economic policies in their economic development. [13] [edit] See also

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IMAX Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

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Ap Language Review Essay

Chapter 1 Review Questions 1. What is invention in rhetoric? Invention in rhetoric is the process of coming up with ideas for speaking or writing. It has three appeals, ethos, logos, and pathos. 2. What is ethos? Ethos is an appeal based on the character of the speaker or writer. 3. What is logos? Logos consists of the content of the argument. It also appeals to the intellect. 4. What is pathos? Pathos appeals to the emotions of the audience. 5. How does ethos, logos, and pathos work together to persuade an audience? All three come together to persuade and audience because they appeal to the heart and the mind. People don’t make decisions with just one or the other, so this creates maximum persuasive effect. These proofs are tools for analyzing and creating effective arguments. 6. What is syllogism? Syllogism is a chain of reasoning moving from general, universal principles to specific instances. 7. What is an enthymeme? An enthymeme is a shortened syllogism. 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It is important in analyzing and constructing arguments because you can’t just speak/write about something without knowing what you’re going to say. The arrangement collects your ideas and lets you put it in order. It allows you to form the best possible argument. 11. What is style? Style is choosing how to express your ideas. Contributes to the writer’s content, message, or emotional appeal. 12. What effect does style have in communicating an argument to an audience? The way the writer communicates is through their style. It appeals to the audiences emotions, it can make the message more artistic and memorable. 1. Invention in rhetoric is the process of coming up with ideas for speaking and writing, kinda like brainstorming. 2. Ethos is one of the three appeals. It is based on the character or credibility of the speaker and or writer. It’s all about making the audience trust and believe in you in a sense. You want them to feel connected to you, that they have your trust and understanding. 3. Logos is another one of the three appeals. This appeal is the content of the written or spoken message. In this appeal it’s all about reducing the problem ethically. Making the problems that they have more understandable and more logical. 4. Pathos is the last of the three appeals. Pathos is the emotional appeal to the audience by the speaker and or writer. Speakers know that people will follow their hearts more than there mind so they try to connect with them on an emotional level. Trying to  speak with passion, and emotion so people can feel the pain and understand. 5. The three proofs work together in a balance to help persuade an audience, because people use their hearts and their minds when making decisions. So when all the appeals are used together in a balance it creates a very effective argument. 6. Syllogism is a chain of reasoning. Moving from general, common principles to specific events. It’s about responding to minor things, then addressing more major premises. 7. An enthymemes is a shortened syllogism. It’s a more practical way to argue. Enthymemes are taking the common known facts out of an argument, but an argument could crumble if the audience doesn’t know or understand the fact you took out of your argument. 8. You make an enthymeme from a syllogism by taking out the universal principle. Like: Fish have gills. A tuna has gills. In conclusion a tuna is a fish. It’s a common thing to know that fish have gills, so you could leave that out of an argument when stating that a tuna is a fish. 9. An enthymeme is more useful and practical in analyzing and constructing an argument because when you analyze an argument you often look for the unstated principle that supports the enthymemes. So when constructing an argument you need to grasp the audience and make sure they have acceptance of the unstated principle. 10. Arrangement is when you know what you are going to say but you need to figure out what order you are going to put it in. It is important in analyzing and arranging arguments because if you compose an amazing argument it needs to have everything in the right arrangement or the audience and will fail to grasp your idea, without the best possible argument. 11. Style is the way you express your ideas. Every writer has a different writing style. Style can change the feel of an argument. Your style can chnage alot, the character, the view point, the content, the memories, and enhance ethos. Think of a writting stlye the way you’d think of a person’s personal fashion stlye. Everyones is different, some similar but never one hundred percent the same. All of them have a different impact. 12. Style has an effect on communicating an argument to an audience that only that one speaker can do. You could have three different speakers with the same argument topic and all three speakers would graspe the audience in different ways. All from the  style that they use.

Nelson Mandela Inauguration Speech Analysis Essay

All inaugural addresses use tools of rhetoric. Nelson Mandela gave an inaugural address. Therefore, Mandela’s inaugural address uses tools of rhetoric. As stated by Campbell and Jamieson, â€Å"inauguration is a right of passage, and therefore creates a need for the newly elected president to make a public address – these addresses have a synthetic core in which certain rhetorical elements †¦ are fused into an indivisible whole† (1990). This paper will discuss the often subtle but effective tools of rhetoric used in inaugural addresses, focusing on former South African President Nelson Mandela’s, in particular. I will argue that the creation of unity is the overriding rhetorical purpose of the inaugural address as a genre, which is synonymous with Burke’s theory of identification To begin with, I will provide some background information on the inaugural address as a rhetorical genre. Following this, I will discuss the positions of the author an d audience (the rhetorical situation), and relate these positions to Aristotle’s concept of ethos and pathos; I will go on to analyze the appeals and tropes exercised by Mandela in his inaugural address; all of these rhetorical elements, I will argue, construct unity and persuade the people of South Africa to take their first steps towards reunification. The inaugural address can be considered a rhetorical genre, as it is a recognizable kind of speech with â€Å"similar forms that share substantive, stylistic, and situational characteristics† (Tarvin, 2008). The inaugural address is ceremonial and traditional in nature, and can be characterized by Aristotelian theorists as epideictic oratory, which is oratory that takes place on special occasions; the author â€Å"celebrates the event for an audience of †¦ fellow citizens by appealing to common values and cultural traditions† (Killingsworth, 2005). The speech symbolizes a change in government, and is the newly elected President’s first official public address. Corbett and Connors have observed that â€Å"inaugural addresses usually deal in broad, undeveloped generalizations. Principles, policies, and promises are enunciated without elaboration† (1999), while Sigelman points out that presidents â€Å"typically use the occasion to commemorate the natio n’s past, to envision its future, and to try to set the tone for [following] years† (1996). Campbell and Jamieson define five key elements that distinguish the inaugural address as a genre. The presidential inaugural: â€Å"unifies the audience by reconstituting its members as the people, who can witness and  ratify the ceremony; rehearses communal values drawn from the past; sets forth the political principles that will govern the new administration; and demonstrates through enactment that the president appreciates the requirements and limitations of executive functions. Finally, each of these ends must be achieved †¦ while urging contemplation not action, focusing on the present while incorporating past and future, and praising the institution of presidency and the values and form of the government of which it is a part (Campbell and Jamieson, 1990). Note that unification of the audience (which is synonymous with Burke’s theory of identification) constitutes the â€Å"most fundamental [element] that demarcate[s] the inaugural address as a rhetorical genre† (Sigelman, 1996), which is the overriding argument of this paper. I would also like to poin t out the three main positions in any piece of rhetoric, as stated by Killingsworth (2005): the position of the author (Mandela, for the purpose of this essay), the position of the audience (immediate and secondary audiences), and the position of value to which the author refers (the unity of whites and blacks). The author’s rhetorical goal is to move the audience towards his position via a shared position of values, which results in the alignment of the three positions (author, audience, and value). Therefore, Mandela’s rhetorical goal is to move his immediate and secondary audience of both supporters and critics towards his position as the newly elected black President of South Africa by the shared goal of unification of all races within the nation. Put another way, Kenneth Burke, in his work â€Å"A Rhetoric of Motives†, describes the basic function of rhetoric as the â€Å"use of words by human agents to form attitudes or induce actions in other human agents† (1969). In order to align attitudes of author, audience, and value, or in order to form attitudes to induce action in other human agents, the first consideration in the construction of the speech must be the audience. Before I discuss audience though, I will talk about the position of Mandela – the author of the inaugural address in question. Corbett and Connors (1999) point out that when doing a rhetorical analysis, one must always consider the special situation that faces the speaker. Nelson Mandela was elected as the first black president in South Africa on May 10th, 1994; this election was particularly significant because it was the first ever multi-racial, democratic election in the country’s history. It also signaled  the end of the apartheid (from the Afrikaans word for â€Å"apartness† or â€Å"separateness†), which was both a slogan and a social and political policy of racial segregations and discrimination, enforced by the White National party from 1948 until Mandela’s election. However, racial segregation has characterized South Africa since white settlers arrived in 1652, before apartheid. Furthermore, Mandela spent 27 years as a political prisoner in South Africa for his role as a freedom fighter and leader of the African National Congress (ANC), and his significant contribution to anti-apartheid activities. All of these factors established some doubts in Mandela, especially in the minds of white South Africans. Mandela â€Å"had to address the very legitimate needs of black South African people while preventing the flight of white South Africans and foreign capital from the nation †¦ [and his inaugural address] needed to [rhetorically] establish the ground from which progress would grow† (Sheckels, 2001). Because of these varying circumstances, the inaugural address might be â€Å"an occasion when a powerful ethical appeal would have to be exerted if the confidence and initiatives of the people were to be aroused† (Corbett and Connors, 1999). However, while these factors established doubts in some, they also contributed to Mandela’s ethos, which is defined by Aristotle as the character or credibility of the rhetor. Aristotle claims â€Å"It is necessary not only to look at the argument, that it may be demonstrative and persuasive but also [for the speaker] to construct a view of himself as a certain kind of person† (Aristotle in Borchers, 2006). As stated in Killingsworth, â€Å"authors demonstrate their character †¦ in every utterance† (2005). A person who possesses â€Å"practical wisdom, virtue, and good will †¦ is necessarily persuasive to the hearers† (Borchers, 2006). Mandela possesses considerable ethos as a result of his personal identity and regional history; his involvement with the ANC, the political party whose aim was to defend the rights and freedoms of African people, and the time he served as a political prisoner demonstrate his dedication to the construction of a democratic nation. One author notes that Mandela serves as a â€Å"representative of the African people at large† (Sheckels, 2001). The public’s knowledge of Mandela’s past allows him to establish ethos, which in turn helps him deliver a rhetorically successful inaugural address, which serves in the construction of unity between all people of South Africa. Additionally, as one author points out, ethos â€Å"may  take several forms – a powerful leader like the President will often have the ethos of credibil ity that comes from authority† (Tuman, 2010). While Mandela uses his past to construct ethos, he also gains ethos as South Africa’s newly elected President. Because it was the first ever democratic election, in which his party won 62% of the votes, Mandela gains authority over past South African Presidents; his call to office represents the wants and needs of all people in South Africa, while his predecessors’ did not. Mandela’s accumulated ethos contributes to the persuasive power of his inaugural address, in which he makes his first official attempt as President to establish unity through speech. Next I will discuss the position of the audience. When constructing a speech, the author must first consider who his specific audience is: â€Å"consideration of audience drives the creation of an effective persuasive message† (Tuman, 2010). When writing his inaugural speech, which is a form of oral rhetoric, Mandela had to consider both an immediate audience, as well as a secondary audience who would watch the speech through the medium of TV and listen to it on the radio. The audience consisted not only of South Africans, but of people across the world interested and inspired by this monumental moment in history. Furthermore, Mandela had to consider both listeners who were his supporters and listeners who were his adversaries. Corbett and Connors claim that â€Å"the larger and more heterogeneous the audience is, the more difficult it is to adjust the discourse to fit the audience. In his content and his style, the President must strike some common denominator – but [one] that does not fall below the dignity that the occasion demands† (Killingsworth, 2005). One such way that Mandela adjusts his discourse to fit his audience is his choice in diction. While he does engage in the use of tropes and rhetorical appeals, he also uses fairly common language throughout. This is especially important in his situation, as many of his black listeners were denied education by the whites, and thus had limited vocabularies. While Mandela wanted to reach out to the educated citizens and international guests, he also had to ensure that his less educated listeners were able to grasp his words and thus be affected by the emotionality of his address and persuaded to unite. When analyzing Mandela’s Inaugural address in consideration of audience, we may also note his opening line: â€Å"Your Majesties, Your Highnesses, Distinguished Guests, Comrades, and Friends.† Here he acknowledges both the  Ã¢â‚¬Å"distinguished international guests,† as well as the people of South Africa: â€Å"Comrades and Friends.† Recognizing members of the international and internal audience is a tradition of inaugural addresses with rhetorical value. Kennedy, for example, followed this tradition when he began his inaugural address: â€Å"Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon, President Truman, Reverend Clergy, Fellow Citizens,† as did Roos evelt when he began: â€Å"Mr. Chief Justice, Mr. Vice President, My Friends† (Wolfarth, 1961). Additionally, we may note that it is traditional for inaugural addresses to â€Å"abound with unity appeals† (Wolfarth, 1961), which unite the president to the citizens of the country for which he reigns. President Jefferson, for example, addressed â€Å"Friends and Fellow-Citizens† in his opening line; Pierce opened with â€Å"My countrymen;† while Lincoln saluted his â€Å"Fellow-Citizens of the United States† in the first lines of his second inaugural address (Wolfarth, 1961). An address containing official salutations as well as unity appeals causes all audiences to identify with the President. We may also note additional unity appeals throughout Mandela’s inaugural address. There is a pervasive use of personal pronouns, such as â€Å"we,† â€Å"us,† and â€Å"our,† along with â€Å"symbolically potent terms that embody a sense of collectivity† (Sigelman, 1996), such as â€Å"South Africa/Africans† â€Å"homel and,† â€Å"people,† and â€Å"country,† all of which connote community and contribute to the construction of unity. Mandela begins 15 out of 30 sections (as designated in the index) with â€Å"we† or â€Å"our,† and they constitute 59 of the 893 words in the address (6.6%). The repetition of the word â€Å"we† at the beginning of subsequent sentences is a rhetorical trope called ‘anaphora;’ by using this rhetorical technique, Mandela subtly emphasizes the importance of unity As one author explains, the strategic use of personal pronouns is â€Å"one fairly subtle means of transmitting a feeling of unity† (Sigelman, 1996). Appeals to unity follow in Burke’s theory of identification as a means of persuasion or cooperation. By addressing â€Å"Comrades and Friends† and using the words â€Å"we† and â€Å"us† throughout the speech, Mandela is uniting the audience with himself, as well as each other – a â€Å"powerful, yet subtle, type of identification †¦ The word ‘we’ reinforces the idea that all of the [listening] community is united in its efforts to accomplish [certain] goals† (Borchers, 2006). The rhetorician who appeals to an audience to the  point where identific ation takes place has accomplished the purpose of his rhetoric (Burke, 1969). Mandela’s use of personal pronouns and terms that embody collectivity construct unity, which is the overriding purpose of both his inaugural address, as well as his Presidency in general. Mandela’s inaugural address also employs pathos, which is an appeal to the emotions of one’s audience that serves as a persuasive power. Aristotle argued that a speaker must understand the emotions of one’s audience in order to be persuasive (Borchers, 2006); that is, he must understand his audience’s state of mind, against whom their emotions are directed, and for what sorts of reasons people feel the way they do, in order to connect emotionally with them. Mandela’s inauguration was an emotional day for the people of South Africa and the world, because it represented a shift towards democracy, equality, and freedom for all people. One author notes that â€Å"Mandela’s first presidential address before the newly constituted South African Parliament lifted South Africa from the realm of imaginary democracy into a state of actual democratic practice and was a self-referential act of bringing opposing parties together. The [inauguration] speech was the first example of reconstruction and development after apartheid †¦ in words – and words alone – [Mandela’s] speech reconstitute[d] the nation† (Salazar, 2002). We can see Mandela’s use of pathos throughout his inauguration speech. For example, he refers to the past as an â€Å"extraordinary human disaster† (3); he enlists his fellow South Africans to â€Å"produce an actual South African reality that will reinforce humanity’s belief in justice, strengthen its confidence in the nobility of the human soul and sustain all our hopes for a glorious life for all† (4); he discusses â€Å"the depth of the pain we all carried in our hearts as we saw our country tear itself apart in a terrible conflict †¦ saw it spurned, outlawed and isolated by the peoples of the world† (9); and he refers to his win as â€Å"a common victory for justice, for peace, for human dignity† (11) and his o pponents as â€Å"blood-thirsty forces which still refuse to see the light† (14). Mandela then makes an emotional pledge: â€Å"we pledge ourselves to liberate all our people from the continuing bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender, and other discrimination †¦ we shall build a society in which all South Africans, both black and white, will be able to walk tall, without any fear in their hearts† (16-18). He then dedicates â€Å"this day to all the heroes and heroines †¦ who sacrificed  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ and surrendered their lives so that we could be free† (20). The rhetorical use of pathos is thick throughout Mandela’s inaugural address. Mandela’s appeals to unity also contribute to the pathos of the speech by inspiring the listeners to join together as one, rather than opposing entities. Mandela concludes with a promise: â€Å"never, never and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression †¦ and suffer the indignity of being the skunk of the world./ Let freedom reign† (28-29). It is also important to note Mandela’s use of what rhetorical scholars have called ‘ideographs,’ which are defined as â€Å"high-level abstraction[s] that encapsulate or summarize the definitive principles or ideals of a political culture† (Parry-Giles & Hogan, 2010). I would like to add that the use of ideographs employs Aristotle’s concept of pathos, as the words are often emotionally laden. Examples of ideographs used in Mandela’s inaugural address include: â€Å"liberty† (2); â€Å"nobility† (4); â€Å"justice† (4, 11, 26); â€Å"peace† (11, 26); â€Å"human dignity† (11, 18); â€Å"freedom† (17, 21, 29); and â€Å"hope† (1, 18). Freedom is the most significant ideograph in the speech, as Mandela was a ‘freedom-fighter’ and was ‘freed’ from prison in 1990, which was a major step towards ‘freedom’ for all South Africans. Ideographs, claim rhetorical scholars, â€Å"have the potential to unify diverse audiences around vaguely shared sets of meaning† (Parry-Giles & Hogan, 2010). Yet again we are presented with appeals to unity in Mandela’s inaugural address. As discussed, Mandela’s speech provides evidence that he understands his audience’s state of mind (a mixture of apprehension and optimism), against whom their emotions are directed (Mandela himself, as well as the apartheid), and for what sorts of reasons people feel the way they do (change, fear, history, etc.). Thus, he was able to connect emotionally with his audience, which is Aristotle’s understanding of Pathos. I will continue my analysis of Mandela’s speech with consideration of appeals he makes to place and race. Killingsworth points out that â€Å"appeals to race †¦ often work together with appeals to place† (2005). In Mandela’s inauguration speech he says: â€Å"Each one of us is as intimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the famous jacaranda trees of Pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushveld. /Each time one of us touches the soil of this land, we feel a sense of personal renewal. The national mood changes as the seasons change. /We are moved by a sense of joy and exhilaration when   grass turns green and the flowers bloom. /That spiritual and physical oneness we all share with this common homeland †¦.† (6-9). This claim on the land can be thought of as an identification of race with place, or in terms of Ke nneth Burke’s dramatism, a ratio between agent and scene, who and where (Killingsworth, 2005). When white settlers arrived in South Africa in the 1600s, they began displacing indigenous black inhabitants from their homeland, pushing them onto â€Å"less desirable terrain where water was comparatively scarce, grazing poor and agricultural conditions harsh† (Horrell, 1973). Apartheid made the separation of blacks with their homeland even more acute with the implementation of designated group areas, in which blacks were relocated to slums and townships, separate from whites. Hook, in Killingsworth, claims that â€Å"collective black self-recovery can only take place when we begin to renew our relationship to the earth, when we remember the way of our ancestors† (2005). Mandela’s appeals to race and place in his inaugural address advocate collective self-recovery, and, as a byproduct, unity. Burke notes that â€Å"rhetors who feature the scene see the world as relatively permanent †¦ [and] rhetors who features the agent see people as rational and capable of making choices† (Borchers, 153). By featuring both scene and agent, it is evident that Mandela sees the physical geography of South Africa as unchanging, and also sees that the people who inhabit South Africa have the power to choose to unite on that shared territory. Unity is the underlying theme of Mandela’s inaugural address as well as his presidency: the unity of white and black people; the dissolution of apartheid and its associated segregation; the reunification of native South Africans with their homeland; and the unification of South Africa with the rest of the free democratic world. â€Å"When [Mandela] took up the reins of power in 1994, the world was holding its breath, expecting the racial tensions splitting the country to explode into a blood bath. Instead, the world witnessed a miracle. Mandela’s achievement is colossal† (Davis, 1997). Mandela’s inaugural address served as an instrument of reunification and produced an atmosphere of stability from which the new system of government could go forward. Index Your Majesties, Your Highnesses, Distinguished Guests, Comrades and Friends: Today, all of us do, by our presence here, and by our celebrations in other parts of our country and the world, confer glory and hope to newborn liberty. Out of the experience of an extraordinary human disaster that lasted too long, must be born a society of which all humanity will be proud. Our daily deeds as ordinary South Africans must produce an actual South African reality that will reinforce humanity’s belief in justice, strengthen its confidence in the nobility of the human soul and sustain all our hopes for a glorious life for all. All this we owe both to ourselves and to the peoples of the world who are so well represented here today. To my compatriots, I have no hesitation in saying that each one of us is as intimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the famous jacaranda trees of Pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushveld. Each time one of us touches the soil of this land, we feel a sense of personal renewal. The national mood changes as the seasons change. We are moved by a sense of joy and exhilaration when the grass turns green and the flowers bloom. That spiritual and physical oneness we all share with this common homeland explains the depth of the pain we all carried in our hearts as we saw our country tear itself apart in a terrible conflict, and as we saw it spurned, outlawed and isolated by the peoples of the world, precisely because it has become the universal base of the pernicious ideology and practice of racism and racial oppression. We, the people of South Africa, feel fulfilled that humanity has taken us back into its bosom, that we, who were outlaws not so long ago, have today been given the rare privilege to be host to the nations of the world on our own soil. We thank all our distinguished international guests for having come to take possession with the people of our country of what is, after all, a common victory for justice, for peace, for human dignity. We trust that you will continue to stand by us as we tackle the challenges of building peace, prosperity, non-sexism, non-racialism and democracy. We deeply appreciate the role that the masses of our people and their political mass democratic, religious, women, youth, business, traditional and other leaders have played to bring about this conclusion. Not least among them is my Second Deputy President, the Honorable F.W. de Klerk. We would also like to pay tribute to our security forces, in all their ranks, for the distinguished role they have played in securing our first democratic elections and the transition   democracy, from blood-thirsty forces which still refuse to see the light. The time for the healing of the wounds has   The moment to bridge the chasms that divide us has   The time to build is upon us. We have, at last, achieved our political emancipation. We pledge ourselves to liberate all our people from the continuing bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender and other discrimination. We succeeded to take our last steps to freedom in conditions of relative peace. We commit ourselves to the construction of a complete, just and lasting peace. We have triumphed in the effort to implant hope in the breasts of the millions of our people. We enter into a covenant that we shall build the society in which all South Africans, both black and white, will be able to walk tall, without any fear in their hearts, assured of their inalienable right to human dignity–a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world. As a token of its commitment to the renewal of our country, the new Interim Government of National Unity will, as a matter of urgency, address the issue of amnesty for various categories of our people who are currently serving terms of imprisonment. We dedicate this day to all the heroes and heroines in this country and the rest of the world who sacrificed in many ways and surrendered their lives so that we could be free. Their dreams have become reality. Freedom is their reward. We are both humbled and elevated by the honor and privilege that you, the people of South Africa, have bestowed on us, as the first President of a united, democratic, non-racial and non-sexist South Africa, to lead our country out of the valley of darkness. We understand it still that there is no easy road to freedom. We know it well that none of us acting alone can achieve success. We must therefore act together as a united people, for national reconciliation, for nation building, for the birth of a new world. Let there be justice for all. Let there be peace for all. Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all. Let each know that for each the body, the mind and the soul have been freed to fulfill themselves. Never, never and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression of one by another and suffer the indignity of being the skunk of the world. Let freedom reign. The sun shall never set on so glorious a human achievement! God bless Africa! Thank you. Works Cited Borchers, T. (2006). Rhetorical theory: An introduction. Waveland Press Inc.: Illinois Burke, K. 1969. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press. Burke, K. (1966). Language as symbo1ic action: Essays on life, literature, and method. Berkeley: University of California Press. Campbell, K.K. & Jamieson, K.H. (1990). Deeds done in words: Presidential rhetoric and the genres of governance. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Corbett, E.P.J. & Connors, R.J. (1999) Classical rhetoric for the modern student. Oxford University Press: New York. Davis, G. (1997, July 18). No ordinary magic. Electronic Mail & Guardian [On-line]. Available: http://www.mg.co.za/mg/news/97jul2/18JUL-mandels.html . Horrel, M. (1973). The African homelands of South Africa. USA: University of Michigan. Ali-Dinar, A.B. (1994). Inaugural speech, Pretoria [Mandela]. University of Pennsylvania: African studies center. Retrieved from http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Inaugural_Speech_1798 4.html Killingsworth, M.J. (2005). Appeals in modern rhetoric: An ordinary-language approach. Southern Illinois University Press. Parry-Giles, S.J. & Hogan, J.M. (2010). The handbook of rhetoric and public address. United Kingdome: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Salazar, P.J. (2002). An African Athens: Rhetoric and the shaping of democracy. London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Sheckels, T.F. (2001). The rhetoric of Nelson Mandela: A qualified success. Howard Journal of Communications, Vol 12-2. Sigelman, L. (Jan-Mar 1996). Presidential inaugurals: The modernization of a genre. Political Communication. Vol 13-1. South Africa’s political parties. SouthAfrica.info. Retrieved from http://www.southafrica.info/about/democracy/polparties.htm Tarvin, D. (2008). Vincent Fox’s inaugural address: A comparative analysis between the generic characteristics of the United States and Mexico. Retrieved from http://lsu.academia.edu/DavidTarvin/Papers/687161/Vicente_Foxs_Inaugural_Addr ess_A_Comparative_Analysis_Between_the_Generic_Characteristics_of_the_United_States_and_Mexico Tuman, J.S. (2010). Communicating terror: The rhetorical dimensions of terrorism. San Francisco: Sage Publications. Wolfarth, D.L. (April 1961). John F. Kennedy in the tradition of inaugural speeches. Quarterly journal of speech, Vol. 47-2. Additional Works Referenced Foss, S.K. (2004). Rhetorical criticism: Exploration & practice. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Hart, R.P. & Daughton, S. (2005). Modern rhetorical criticism: Third edition. USA: Pearson Education, Inc. Kuypers, J.A. (2005). The art of rhetorical criticism. USA: Pearson Education Inc. Lacy, M.G. & Ono, K.A. (2011). Critical rhetorics of race. New York: New York University Press